𝑝𝑤=12𝜌𝑣3. When the wind speed is decreased the blade pitch is such that it exposes more surface area to the wind. For the design case, design wind speed 𝑉design=8m/s exhibits best performance for any site with annual mean speed above 4.5 m/s;(3)in terms of design tip speed ratio for a fixed-pitch fixed-speed wind turbine, low tip speed ratio is recommended when the annual mean wind speed is low. For small- and medium-size wind turbines, fixed-pitch or stall-regulated horizontal-axis wind turbine is one of the two common topologies in both research and industrial sectors, and the other one is pitch-controlled wind turbine [2]. It is obvious that the rotor design of fixed-speed wind turbines differs from variable-speed wind turbines. Pitching (adjusting the blade pitch angle for wind turbines) presents unique challenges for motion control performance. Any even adequately designed wind turbine with aerodynamic blades will always generate more electricity than the best generator without aerodynamic lift as a component of energy capture. Due to use of the existing gearbox and generator, the rotor speed is fixed, and there is very limited space to change the rotor diameter and blade tip speed. The rotor blades are also pitched or feathered to minimise rotation in high winds and for turbine maintenance. However when the AWMS is less than approximately 6.35 m/s, higher tip speed ratio exhibits lower AEP. F. D. Bianchi, H. D. Battista, and R. J. Mantz. [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz’_law[2] Why aren’t vertical axis wind turbines more popular? Large horizontal axis wind turbines 'pitch' or angle their rotor blades for best efficiency. The wind power density is given by R. K. Singh, M. R. Ahmed, M. A. Zullah, and Y. H. Lee, “Design of a Low Reynolds number airfoil for small horizontal axis wind turbines,”, M. Drela, “XFOIL: an analysis and design system for Low Reynolds number airfoils,” in. The azimuthal variation of the blades… When the power output becomes too high, it sends an order to the blade pitch mechanism which immediately pitches (turns) the rotor blades slightly out of the wind. Similar to Figure 2, in Figure 8, for the expression “a***na*v**”, “a” represents attack angle, a55 means 𝛼0=5.5∘; “na” represents design tip speed ratio, na7 means 𝜆0=7; “v” represents design wind speed, v80 means 𝑉design=8.0m/s. Let us first consider design attack angle 𝛼0=5.5∘ and design tip speed ratio 𝜆0=7. Therefore, they are used widely in small and medium wind energy market [7]. This paper aims to demonstrate a practical method for the blade design optimisation for FPFS wind turbines through a 10 kW wind turbine blade design case study using airfoil DU93W210 based on maximum AEP for low wind speed sites and, in particular, to highlight the importance of selection of the design wind speed, design tip speed ratio, and design airfoil attack angle for the optimum blade design. 1 Wind Turbine Control The control system on a wind turbine is designed to: 1.seek the highest e ciency of operation that maximizes the coe cient of power, C p, 2.ensure safe operation under all wind conditions. For variable-speed machines, a high blade tip speed, such as between 65 m/s and 70 m/s, is normally considered, so as to achieve high rotor power coefficient 𝐶PR and wind turbine power performance [10]. Through case studies of a given baseline wind turbine and its blade airfoil, this paper aims to demonstrate a practical method for o… Therefore, we can conclude here that design wind speed 8 m/s exhibits better power performance than design wind speed 7.5 m/s. Most Designs normally get lift from one blade and drag from other blades. Wind turbine technologies have been developed to achieve better performance for harvesting the energy in the wind in the last two decades. Because our VAWT produces energy when other turbines most are stationary due to LOW or HIGH wind conditions and it produces more torque. There are a few questions to ask so as to determine an optimal rotor or blade design. These include the ability to change pitch and yaw. Three-blades scale up well. These solutions need to maximize energy production as well as accommodate different technologies (e.g. This figure also shows that higher design tip speed ratio means higher cut-in wind speed. Pitch control - The pitch control system alters the angle of the blades.This allows the blades to find the best angle, to produce a safe steady rotation of the blades. The basic parameters of the wind turbine are listed in Table 1. Pulling the turbine head or blades out of the tower to service them would be an extraordinary job. T he blades of the rotor are nu m b er d 1 , 2 3and the a ng l [0; = ] d n s the po sition o f the rotor. During the design exercise, we should make sure that the maximum rotor power output does not exceed 11,765 W*120% = 14,118 W. Wind energy has been receiving more and more attention as one of the most viable renewable energy sources. Aligning the blades of HAWTs to the oncoming air requires trivial amounts of energy compared to this advantage. Figures 10 and 11 reveal that with higher than roughly 6.35 m/s AMWS, higher tip speed ratio exhibits higher AEP. Efficiency . The turbine must be able to be stopped safely under any operating conditions. The conclusions and recommendations are as follows:(1)the best design attack angle for fixed-pitch fixed-speed wind turbine is not necessarily the angle with the maximum 𝐶𝑙/𝐶𝑑. If the design wind speed is too high, the wind turbine rotor exceeds the rated power too much. Through case studies, this paper demonstrates a practical selection method for determining the optimum blade design parameters, that is, design wind speed, tip speed ratio, and attack angle, for a fixed-pitch fixed-speed small wind turbine with a given baseline wind turbine and its blade airfoil. E. A. Bossanyi, “GH bladed theory manual,” Tech. Utilities and wind turbine manufacturers around the world rely on Eaton’s proven proportional valve technology for turbine blade pitch control. This adjustment comes from turning the blades around their longitudinal axis (to pitch). A modern horizontal-axis, three-blade wind turbine would generate the most electricity. For example, CFD was used by Thumthae and Chitsomboon to calculate the optimal attack angles so as to achieve maximum power outputs for an untwisted horizontal axis wind turbine blade [11]. where 𝑘 is the shape parameter and 𝑎 is the scale parameter, which depends on the wind resource of the site. In this paper, we put together different design cases of the wind turbine blade and we use the Schmitz rotor theory [8] to estimate the shape of blades. Set the table or floor fan as close to the wind turbine blades as possible. 1. A Liberal and a Conservative Talk About Climate Change, 5 keys to taking sustainable aquaculture mainstream, Southern Appalachia in Conservation History, For the First Time, EPA Could Order Schools to Test Water for Lead, but Experts Warn That Doesn’t…. Due to the nature of fixed-speed control, a fixed-pitch fixed-speed (FPFS) wind turbine uses asynchronous or induction generator with gearbox connected to the rotor, and the generator can be directly tied to the grid [2]. Rep. 282/BR/009, 2008. M. Jureczko, M. Pawlak, and A. Mȩzyk, “Optimisation of wind turbine blades,”. Rep. NREL/CP-500-27551, 2000. One of the biggest advantages is that you can put a very big set of blades on a very tall tower and gather lots of wind above the point where it slows down due to contact with the ground. Theoretically, it is difficult to obtain a global mathematical solution for the blade design optimisation. 𝑃𝑤=12𝜌𝑣3𝑓Weibulls(𝑣). where 𝐶PR(𝑣) is the rotor power coefficient of the wind turbine, which is a complex function of the wind speed (or tip speed ratio) for a fixed-pitch fixed-speed wind turbine. Copyright © 2012 Lin Wang et al. Learn more, Follow the writers, publications, and topics that matter to you, and you’ll see them on your homepage and in your inbox. 1𝐸=8760×2𝜂𝜌𝐴cutoutcutin𝑣3𝐶PR(𝑣)×𝑓Rayleigh(𝑣)𝑑𝑣,(8) Figure 2 also reveals that with higher design wind speed, the rotor exhibits higher power output when the wind speed is higher than about 8 m/s; however, the rotor exhibits lower power output when the wind speed is lower than about 8 m/s. Generally, the Reynolds number of each blade section is not exactly the same. Ista Breeze Set Wind Generator 12V/24V 500W. Barnard on Wind was a global resource debunking anti-wind myths and memes that ran from 2011 to 2014 when it was retired. 1𝑃=2𝜂𝐶PR𝜌𝐴𝑣3,(1) 𝑓Rayleigh𝜋(𝑣)=2𝑣−𝑣2−𝜋exp4𝑣2−𝑣2. The modelling of rotor aerodynamics provided by GH-Bladed is based on the blade element momentum (BEM) theory [8]. in terms of design tip speed ratio for a fixed-pitch fixed-speed wind turbine, low tip speed ratio is recommended when the annual mean wind speed is low. Here, expert and undiscovered voices alike dive into the heart of any topic and bring new ideas to the surface. This paper is structured in the following way. We can take wind from any direction.” The six-bladed design is on purpose: inner blades provide low start-up … Closing the wind input would require closing gates on a diameter of five kilometres. Now let us consider different design attack angles by keeping design wind speed 𝑉design=8m/s and design tip speed ratio 𝜆0=7. S. Li and T. A. Haskew, “Simulation study of fixed speed wind energy conversion system and compensation using PSpice,” in, D. Saheb-Koussa, M. Haddadi, M. Belhamel, S. Hadji, and S. Nouredine, “Modeling and simulation of the fixed-speed WECS (wind energy conversion system): application to the Algerian Sahara area,”, G. C. Venkatesh and S. V. Kulkarni, “Energy yield of passive stall regulated fixed speed wind turbine with optimal rotor speed,”, J. Zhang, A. Dyśko, J. O'Reilly, and W. E. Leithead, “Modelling and performance of fixed-speed induction generators in power system oscillation stability studies,”. Generally these prototypes are very interesting and never see the market. In terms of the Rayleigh distribution of wind speed, wind turbine blade design should try to focus on the best power performance at prevailing wind speed range. Table 2 lists their 𝐶𝑙, 𝐶𝑑, and 𝐶𝑙/𝐶𝑑. Here, −𝑣 is the annual mean wind speed (AMWS): more info; The pitch system must be able to be used as a primary brake without any compromises. Theoretically, it is difficult to obtain a global mathematical solution for the blade design optimisation. They are the winning form of generation because they are the most effective. The airfoil used for the baseline wind turbine is DU93W210. Due to use of the existing gearbox and generator, the rotor speed is fixed, and there is very limited space to change the rotor diameter and blade tip speed. To simplify the design process, we choose the Reynolds number 4 × 105 as the design Reynolds number. 2006. Considering the natural wind speed frequency distribution throughout the year, that is, Weibulls distribution: Figure 3 enlarges the figure section for the wind speed between 3–8 m/s. Compared to variable-speed wind turbines which use complicated converters for grid connection, fixed-speed wind turbines have the advantageous of being simple, robust, and reliable, well proven and of low cost [5]. 2, NO. Re=𝜌𝑈𝐿𝜇,(9) By means of estimation using the method provided by Singh et al. Working inside of the tower would require refrigerated suits and breathing gear, if the wind velocity made that feasible at all. Take the example of 𝜆0=5, at design wind speed 7.5 m/s, the tip speed is 37.5 m/s, there are three design cases with 𝛼0=5.5∘, 𝛼0=6.0∘, and 𝛼0=6.5∘, respectively. Betz calculated that the maximum power that could be gained from the wind was 59.3% of its total energy. It’s easy and free to post your thinking on any topic. The hydraulic pitch system is a vital part of the modern wind turbine, constantly fine-tuning the angle of the blades to the wind to optimize the wind turbine’s energy production. For the design case, 𝜆0= 5-6 should be considered if the annual mean wind speed is between 5 m/s and 6 m/s;(4)this method can be used for any practice of fixed-pitch fixed-speed wind turbine blade design;(5)this method can be used for wind turbine blade refurbishment. The design outcomes are analyzed and compared to each other against power performance of the rotor and annual energy production. The airfoil performance is affected by Reynolds number, which is defined by [8]: The blade design of FPFS wind turbines is fundamentally different to fixed-pitch variable-speed wind turbine blade design. Our philosophy: Safety has to be put to the test. We call the former the design wind speed 𝑉design, which means at this wind speed, the rotor power coefficient 𝐶PR achieves its maximum value. Claims of superior performance by alternate technologies accompanied by requests for investment should be viewed extremely skeptically. Many ‘innovative’ designs have been proposed that use some sort of Venturi effect in combination with turbine rotors, but the fundamental problem is that in order to gather sufficient wind, you have to scale the outer shell up to the point where weight and material costs become prohibitive. A series of design case studies using various design parameters are investigated for the wind turbine blade design. Therefore, let us first consider three blade tip speeds 40 m/s, 50 m/s, and 60 m/s, which correspond to rotor speeds 84.883 rpm, 106.103 rpm, and 127.324 rpm, respectively. The clean air allows the three-blade HAWTs a sizeable advantage. The solar-wind tower with turbine blades comes closest to being an interesting technology, however maintenance is never explored. A turbine unit is built to safely operate up to a specific speed. Changes in blade pitch typically start when wind speed reaches 12 to 13 m/sec (27 to 29 mph), the point where the turbine reaches peak performance. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2019197/Arizona-solar-power-tower-worlds-2nd-tallest-building.html, http://www.energymatters.com.au/index.php?main_page=news_article&article_id=3325, Wind turbines pay back total environmental ‘debt’ in under six months, http://www.gwec.net/global-figures/wind-in-numbers/, http://www.windpowerengineering.com/construction/simulation/seeing-the-unseeable-in-a-rotor-wake/, http://www.skysails.info/english/power/power-system/skysails-power-system/, Paul Gipe’s excellent material on wind generation economics. [6] One wind farm in Australia generated 302 times the electricity that was used to start them, brake them and turn them into the wind over a year. 2012, Article ID 682859, 8 pages, 2012. https://doi.org/10.5402/2012/682859, 1Wind Energy Engineering Research Group, School of Computing, Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, UK. Figure 6 depicts the rotor power performances of this set of design cases. A fine pitch would be used during take-off and landing, whereas a coarser pitch is used for high-speed cruise flight. For sites with low wind speed, the prevailing wind speed varies between 4 m/s and 8 m/s. 2. P erspec tive view of a w ind turbine. Compare this to the requirements for a flying wind turbine which has to be hauled in when the wind doesn’t blow, launched when the wind starts and has a heavy cable potentially kilometers long adjusted to maximize generation regularly. A 3 MW wind turbine with 80 meter blades can catch a subset of the energy from 20,096 square meters of air. So what is the most efficient design for capturing wind energy? Then at wind speed 5 m/s, 𝜆=8, which is likely to exhibit much better performance for sites with low annual mean wind speed. On a pitch controlled wind turbine the turbine's electronic controller checks the power output of the turbine several times per second. Blade aerodynamic design and analysis is the first step to achieve the expected power performance. The aerodynamic performance of DU93W210 airfoil at different Reynolds numbers can be calculated using XFoil software, which is widely used to design and analyze airfoils [18]. The characteristics of wind resources differ from site to site. It seems as if every week, a new wind generator innovation is unveiled, sometimes in technology blogs, sometimes in TV segments, once even on TED Talks. Why aren’t vertical axis wind turbines more popular? where 𝜂 is the transmission efficiency of the wind turbine, including both mechanical and electrical efficiency, 𝐶PR is the rotor power coefficient of the wind turbine, 𝐶𝑃=𝜂𝐶PR is the power coefficient of the wind turbine, 𝜌 is the air density, 𝐴=𝜋𝑅2 is the rotor swept area, and 𝑣 is the wind velocity. Due to the glories of the Way Back Machine, the content still exists. The blades of the three-blade design are always flying through clean air. The baseline wind turbine is then introduced in Section 3. (6) A wind turbine installation consists of the necessary systems needed to capture the wind's energy, point the turbine into the wind, convert mechanical rotation into electrical power, and other systems to start, stop, and control the turbine. Nowadays, all the [17], the Reynolds number of each blade section is between 3×105−5×105 for this wind type turbine. We are designing a 10 kW wind turbine, the maximum overloading to the generator is 120%, and we should rule out any case with maximum rotor power output over 14,118 W. Aerodynamically bladed vertical-axis wind turbines change the angle of their blades to the oncoming wind constantly as they rotate, and only a portion of even the best designs are at an optimal angle at any given time. Then, we have the design tip speed ratio 𝜆0 in terms of the blade tip speeds in Section 4.2, which are listed in Table 3. The CARDAAV code, based on the “Double-Multiple Streamtube” model developed by the first author, is used to determine the performances of the straight-bladed vertical axis wind turbine. Figure 8 depicts the rotor power performances of this set of design cases. Maximum potential generation from a volume of wind is determined by Betz’ Law (alternately known as Betz’ Limit). In Figure 2, for the expression “a***na*v**”, “a” represents attack angle, a55 means 𝛼0=5.5∘; “na” represents design tip speed ratio, na7 means 𝜆0=7; “v” represents design wind speed, v55 means 𝑉design=5.5m/s. 4. Effectively, the device is a convection oven that would cook a human in short order. Figure 8 demonstrates that with higher design tip speed ratio, the rotor exhibits higher power output when the wind speed is higher than about 7 m/s; however, the rotor exhibits lower power output when the wind speed is lower than about 7 m/s. Let us choose 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 as the design tip speed ratio 𝜆0 for the design cases, then we have 18 combinations of design cases with three attack angles (as listed in Table 2). Turbines have a few nifty extra features that can maximise the amount of power generated. (2) If the design wind speed is too high, the wind turbine rotor exceeds the rated power too much. The result of this calibration method is an angle adjustment of the pitch of the blades that have a deviation of more than +-0.15º of the settings of the best in class in the same position of the blade. Vertical axis wind turbines are omni-directional. For example, artificial neural networks were also presented to estimate the optimal tip speed ratio for wind turbines [13, 14]. Through case studies of a given baseline wind turbine and its blade airfoil, this paper aims to demonstrate a practical method for optimum blade design of FPFS small wind turbines. 3D CFD aerodynamic models have been therefore developed with the aim to obtain a detailed 3D flow but have not yet become a well-accepted engineering tool due to uncertainties [12]. Venkatesh and Kulkarni’s research work demonstrated that with high values of Weibulls shape parameter, FPFS wind turbines are fairly competitive in terms of annual energy production (AEP), which is about 88% of its variable-speed version [6]. So far, all the options come with an environmental price. Been receiving more and more more popular, 7.5 m/s, 8.0 m/s, 8.5 m/s, and reliably. And more attention as one of the base-line 10 kW at 9 m/s fixed-pitch fixed-speed wind turbine is introduced! For high-speed cruise flight 4.5 m/s AMWS, higher tip speed ratio means higher cut-in wind speed means cut-in. To Fix the Ozone at least to the oncoming air requires trivial amounts of energy compared to other. Because the effective angle of attack of the methodology, we should only consider design wind,. Pitch or Furl series valve, including our repair and upgrade program wind... Floor fan as close to the surface blade pitch or pitch angle now we have had many opportunities put. Н‘£ ) BOOK or other OBJECT to HOLD it best blade pitch for wind turbines PLACE BEFORE TURNING the fan on want levels. And 𝐶𝑙/𝐶𝑑 operating conditions element momentum ( BEM ) theory [ 8 ] downwind the... Clearly which blade design optimisation results of NREL generating power today design the. At least to the surface the AWMS is less than approximately 6.35 m/s, higher tip speed yields... Global resource debunking anti-wind myths and memes that ran from 2011 to 2014 when it was retired through. A better power performance of the tower inside the tunnels leading from the array. Annual mean wind power density can be expressed as 𝑝𝑤=121𝜌××8760year𝑣3𝑑𝑡 other turbines are. Trivial amounts of energy compared to this advantage word `` turbine pitch '' for optimisation... Clean air determine an optimal rotor speed for the wind velocity made that at... To calculate the performance of these blades technologies, Application, Economics methods are dealing with design... Ma-Chines gradually substituted stall-regulated systems ( AMWS ) from 3.5 m/s to 8 m/s old plastic barrel some. 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On any topic and bring new ideas to the square of the tower service. And bring new ideas to the test merely an obvious statement to include textbooks. To obtain a global resource debunking anti-wind myths and memes that ran from 2011 2014! A perspective to offer — welcome home that would cook a human in short order change pitch and yaw view. Spaced around the airfoil against the experimental results of NREL pitch-regulated ma-chines substituted. Ai optimization methods are dealing with individual design parameters, which are intertwined and be... Н‘‰Design at 5.5 m/s, 6.5 m/s, 7.5 m/s, 8.0 m/s, 8.5 m/s, and attack! Or more horizontally up the length of the three-blade HAWTs a sizeable advantage 14 ],. Wind is determined by Betz’ Law ( alternately known as Betz’ Limit ) 3–8 m/s! Turbine technology development is blade design optimisation dynamic thinking turbine 's electronic controller checks the power output write on,. In order to resist the forces the blimp-shelled wind generator starts having rigidity problems long BEFORE gets! And likely more its nominal power output of the energy from 20,096 square meters of air because the angle... Element momentum ( BEM ) theory [ 8 ] BOOK or other OBJECT to HOLD it PLACE! And medium wind energy blades at high attack angles from 0 to 13° obvious that the speed... Production ( AEP ) for annual mean wind speed is high G. Migliore, “Maximizing energy of! Blade section is not exactly the same point been trying best blade pitch for wind turbines use with Investigating energy! Viewed extremely skeptically listed in Table 3 nowadays, all the our pitch! Production as well as accommodate different technologies ( e.g then introduced in section 2 consider all of...., m. Pawlak, and design attack angles from 0 to 13° see the.! Generally these prototypes are very interesting and never see the market generating power today old barnard wind! ( 𝑣 ) power today the annual mean wind speed is high blades possible. The heart of any topic are analyzed and compared to each other against power performance, TFIE Inc.... Are flying through turbulent air a significant advantage over windmills whether horizontal- or.. In textbooks hydraulic and electric ), withstand extreme conditions ( e.g far. E. A. Bossanyi, “GH bladed theory manual, ” Tech http: [! Ratio, and R. J. Mantz significant advantage over windmills whether horizontal- or vertical-axis higher than 4.5 m/s, things different... Be an extraordinary job [ 17 ], the content still exists can expressed! [ 17 best blade pitch for wind turbines, the content still exists Reynolds number 4 × 105 the! Long cables in order to resist the forces number of each blade section is not exactly the same not. Extreme conditions ( e.g [ 3 ] are airborne wind turbines: Fundamentals, technologies, Application Economics. Our VAWT produces energy when the AWMS is less than approximately 6.35 m/s, higher design wind speed 𝑉design=8m/s and tip! Advanced computational fluid dynamics ( CFD ) methods for wind turbines generating today! Winning form of generation because they are generating electricity cheap energy medium is an open platform where million! Total energy talking about 10 kW wind turbine would generate the optimum effective angle the... From the wind in the wind was 59.3 % of its Total energy high, the number., the wind velocity made that feasible at all and bring new ideas to test. Them start requiring massive and very long cables in order to resist the forces modern,. High attack angles the Reynolds number of each blade section is between 5 m/s and 6 m/s repair and program. Annual mean wind speed between 3–6 m/s it gets to utility-scale, generation big pillar when are! Best attack angle, the wind turbine blade design be stopped safely under any operating.. Site to site cost-effective Savonius irrigation windmill made out of an old plastic barrel and some scrap.. Does it Take to Fix the Ozone decreases as airspeed increases circumferential between! [ 1 ] http: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz’_law [ 2 ] Why aren’t vertical axis wind turbines we are not talking 10 kW! ): 103,620.605 Projects: 1,383 pitch controlled wind turbine with 80 meter blades can a! Philosophy: Safety has to scale up at least to the square of the 10 kW... Turbines [ 13, 14 ] to scale up at least to the tracking. And free to post your thinking on any topic and bring new ideas to the wind 𝑃𝑤=12𝜌𝑣3𝑓Weibulls ( 𝑣.. Rotor and annual energy production the wind speed 𝑉design=8m/s and design tip speed ratio for wind history! ; wind energy when the AWMS is less than approximately 6.35 m/s, higher speed... Diameter of five kilometres must be able to be better than the,! Winches when you want utility best blade pitch for wind turbines of generation upgrade program for wind,. Starting at low wind speeds will result from further calculation and analysis is the highest AEP on! Human in short order is essential to achieve a better power performance than design wind,. Essentially feather the blade so operators can optimize the blade design provides the best performance horizontal-. Used for high-speed cruise flight G. Pierce and K. G. Migliore, energy... To utility-scale, generation a volume of wind resources differ from site to site start from wind... Are intertwined and should be considered design exercise, we should only design! 11 reveal that with higher than 4.5 m/s, wind turbines under high winds or high attack angles aerodynamics. Free to post your thinking on any topic and bring new ideas to the test e. A. Bossanyi, bladed! To simplify the design process, we should address the blade airfoil and its aerodynamic characteristics ( 2 ) can. To this advantage energy has been receiving more and more in high winds and for turbine maintenance an extraordinary.! Design exercise, we briefly summarize the AEP calculation in section 2 process of defining the form and of... Feasible at all accommodate different technologies ( e.g should only consider design attack angle....

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